Assembled here are key sources that have shaped the modern Middle East, Zionism and Israel. We have included items that give texture, perspective and opinion to historical context. Many of these sources are mentioned in the Era summaries and contain explanatory introductions.
<span class="cie-plus-title">Jimmy Carter’s Unbridled Praise for the Shah of Iran at a State Dinner in Tehran, 1977 </span><span class="cie-plus-badge">CIE+</span>

Jimmy Carter’s Unbridled Praise for the Shah of Iran at a State Dinner in Tehran, 1977 CIE+

Having made human rights a central pillar of his foreign policy, Carter nonetheless seemingly ignored the abuses the Shah of Iran imposed upon his own people. Carter’s unctuous praise for the Shah at this state dinner angered Iranians in general, the clerical regime that replaced the Shah in 1979, resulting in negative consequences for Carter as he went into the 1980 presidential election.

Documents and Sources|December 31, 1977
<span class="cie-plus-title">CIA Assessment, March 1980: Iran’s Aggressive Ideology Aims to Reshape the Middle East; Why Did the Carter Administration Not Understand the Islamic Clergy’s Intentions 18 Months Earlier?</span><span class="cie-plus-badge">CIE+</span>

CIA Assessment, March 1980: Iran’s Aggressive Ideology Aims to Reshape the Middle East; Why Did the Carter Administration Not Understand the Islamic Clergy’s Intentions 18 Months Earlier?CIE+

The CIA report details Iran’s aggressive foreign policy of promoting Islam as a radical platform for governance, noting also the new regime’s vigorous anti-U.S. outlook. Viewing Iran exclusively as an asset in the Cold War and not comprehending the potential power of political Islam developing with Iran proved to be one of the greatest oversights in U.S. Middle East foreign policy in the last 100 years.

<span class="cie-plus-title">Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) — Containing Iran’s Access to Nuclear Weapons, 2015</span><span class="cie-plus-badge">CIE+</span>

Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) — Containing Iran’s Access to Nuclear Weapons, 2015CIE+

Under the deal between Iran and five world powers, Iran agreed to dismantle much of its nuclear program in exchange for billions of dollars of sanctions relief. Israel called the deal too lenient. On May 8, 2018, President Trump withdrew the U.S. from the JCPOA, calling it one of the “worst and most one-sided” agreements in U.S. history. Israel’s objectives in attacking Iran in June 2025 focused on the same central features Israel argued a decade earlier were not sufficiently addressed in the JCPOA.

<span class="cie-plus-title">Jimmy Carter’s Decade of Embracing Hamas, 2003-2015</span><span class="cie-plus-badge">CIE+</span>

Jimmy Carter’s Decade of Embracing Hamas, 2003-2015CIE+

Former US President Jimmy Carter embraced Hamas as a legitimate voice of the Palestinian people. His motivations possibly stretched from intentional to misguided to malevolent. Hamas leaders who were engaged in inter-Palestinian struggles remained pleased with the recognition he gave them. American officials and Israelis were keenly perturbed by the courtship he gave them.